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Coffee has some health benefits including reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and improving liver health, according to a new study..

According to the American Heart Association (AHA), up to five cups of coffee a day is safe for most people, citing new research recommending a cap of 400 milligrams (mg) of caffeine.

Exceeding the limit increases the risk of high blood pressure and heart failure.

Sticking to that upper limit, which equates to around two double-shot and one single-shot espressos, is not only a safe choice, however, but could at the same time boost heart health.

Moderate coffee intake appears to be not only “generally safe for most adults”, but also “linked to a lower risk of several cardiovascular conditions, including heart failure, heart disease and stroke in some individuals,” the AHA said.

Coffee contains bioactive compounds that may have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which are the likely source of its wider health benefits, according to the AHA.

The same does not hold for so-called energy drinks, however, the researchers warned.

“High doses of caffeine, such as those found in energy drinks including energy shots, may have harmful effects on the heart and should be avoided,” said Gregory Marcus, professor of medicine at the University of California, San Francisco.

The researchers cautioned it can be tricky to show cause and effect when it comes to measuring the effects of coffee.

“Most studies on caffeine are observational,” they pointed out, explaining that it can be “difficult to separate the effects of caffeine from other ingredients usually added to coffee, such as milk, cream, flavoured syrups and/or sugar.”

In 2021, scientists at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Southampton reported finding indications that moderate coffee consumption can protect against liver disease, warning that four cups containing high-dose caffeine should be the limit.

In 2024, a China-based team found that around three cups a day could boost cardiovascular health.